The assassination precipitated Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia. The conflict escalated quickly with the Central Powers, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, pitted against the Allied Powers, which included Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy and Japan. The United States joined the fray in 1917, and by the war’s end 32 countries were involved in the fighting.

Most of the battles were fought in Europe and the Middle East. Repeated attempts to outflank each other on the battlefield failed. This soon resulted in an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions on both sides. Barbed wire, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground to assault the enemy trenches suicidal to massed infantry advances. The conflict quickly settled into a stalemate, with both sides introducing new tactics and weapons in attempts to break the standoff. Soon new weapons appeared on the battlefield, including tanks, machine rifles and submachine guns. The most feared weapon was chlorine gas, which was first used by the Germans on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides.

In September 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse when Bulgaria capitulated, followed by the Ottoman Empire a month later. Finally, on November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed with Germany. The cease-fire was to take effect six hours later, at the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month.

There was an estimated total, on both sides, of nine million combat-related deaths and another two to three million deaths caused by accidents and disease.

The Treaty of Versailles at the end of the war placed harsh reparations on Germany, which led to the rise of the Nazi Party and the start of World War II in 1939.

The examples seen in Syria have been used with different conventional and improvised munitions, propelled by a blank cartridge. These are often ball (FMJ) or other common cartridge types modified by removing the projectile and crimping the case neck. In some cases, powder loads have been adjusted. The repurposing of an HMG and its ammunition offers a considerable range advantage over the smaller designs and may provide improved reliability over some improvised mortar designs. In this case, the munition appears to be relatively sizable and is therefore likely to offer enhanced lethality.

This article is reproduced courtesy of Armament Research Services (ARES). See www.armamentresearch.com for further original content.

Cell phones and tablet computers are ubiquitous in modern life. It’s nearly impossible for some to put down their cell phones. Cell phones may be used to call anywhere in the world at a very low cost. Apps like WhatsApp and Skype permit audio or video communication using only a Wi-Fi signal. Instagram, Facebook and other social media also allow nearly instant global communication to a mass audience. Unfortunately, privacy rights that are the norm in the United States do not always apply when overseas. Foreign governments do not always need a warrant or other judicial intervention to listen in on a phone call or to intercept data sent from a cell phone. In some countries, malware may be covertly installed as a means of monitoring and reporting cell phone and computer use.

Frequent international travelers may want to consider using a dedicated cell phone for overseas travel. Swapping a SIM card from the primary phone to the dedicated international phone is quick and easy, allowing the international phone to take on the characteristics of the primary phone. The phone dedicated to international travel would have a limited contacts list, to include only those persons with whom communication is critical. The number and type of apps on the phone would be limited to those critical for the international trip. Credit card and other sensitive information should not be saved on the phone, or within the apps used on the phone. Upon return to the United States, a factory reset should be performed to eliminate (or reduce) the chance of malware on the travel phone.

Similarly, laptop or tablet use should be scrutinized. Is a laptop required for the trip? If not, leave it at home. If a laptop is needed, consider taking one with only the bare essentials needed for the trip. Once overseas, examine how e-mails and data are being downloaded. As mentioned in the context of cell phones, data transmitted via the hotel Wi-Fi system may not be secure. Consider using a Virtual Private Network, or VPN, as a secure means of transmitting data while overseas. What files are on the computer being taken? Are there blueprints or technical data saved to the computer that might require an export license to take overseas? Are the data on the device encrypted? If the computer gets stolen or compromised, is there critical information on the device that would result in an export violation? As with cell phones, consider using specific devices only for international travel.

You’ve arrived at the trade show. There’s a crush of people trying to get in. Did you pre-register, or are you registering on site? In many instances, pre-registration is encouraged, or even required. In some cases, pre-registration is cheaper than registering on site. A photo may be required as part of the registration process. As a professional, be professional. Use the name listed on your passport or government-issued identification. Some shows verify the name on the entry credentials to government ID. Treat your show credentials properly; remove and stow them upon leaving the show to avoid being identified as an easy mark to street level crime. Do not swap credentials with friends or colleagues. At a recent show in the United Arab Emirates, multiple show attendees were arrested when found to be using show credentials that did not match their name. Reportedly, it cost upwards of US$25,000 per person to bail the parties out of an Emirati jail.

The use of a credit or debit card is common within the United States. We’ve all seen foreign currency for sale at the airport. Travel websites have a number of tips on how to get the best exchange rates. Using an ATM or a credit card is fine–as long as it works. That said, cash is king.

Believe it or not, there are still places in the world where there are no ATM machines. Credit cards do not always work overseas, even when notice of international travel is provided to the credit card company. As an example, Visa will routinely decline credit card transactions originating from China. If your credit card is rejected (or worse, stolen) do you have an alternate means of paying for a hotel bill? Do you have enough cash to pay for a modified airline ticket to get home in case of an emergency? While it may seem counterintuitive, carrying several thousand dollars in cash as an emergency fund may get one out of trouble when all other means of payment fail. Make sure that the emergency cash is newly issued and not worn–many places in Asia will not accept old US $100 bills, and if they’re worn, won’t accept them either.

Returning home to the United States may not seem problematic, but remember that not everything encountered overseas can come home. The amazing charcuterie experienced in Germany or mind-blowing cheese found in France may not be allowed into the United States. In general terms, meat and soft cheeses are not allowed. As members of the gun culture, also bear in mind that the laws of foreign countries do not always match those of the United States.

In Europe, bolts and barrels are restricted items. Sound suppressors are lightly regulated in some parts of Europe and may be purchased for cash, without the lengthy ATF Form 4 processing times. However, do note that the import of nearly any firearm part will require an approved ATF Form 6 import permit. Importing firearm parts without an import license is a violation of US law and creates the risk of arrest, seizure and potential jail time. As enticing as it may be, don’t risk it.

International travel is an amazing opportunity to see historical sites and experience the gun culture in a foreign country. Frequent travelers owe it to themselves to be adequately prepared personally and professionally to ensure that the trip is successful. With a little forethought about the risks associated with privacy and the loss (or theft) of critical data, as well as how to successfully navigate financial challenges, frequent travelers should face few issues. Preparedness is key. Safe travels.
Mr. Wong is a Washington-licensed attorney. He regularly provides legal counsel to the firearm and defense industry via his law firm, The Firearms Law Group. Mr. Wong also maintains Hurricane Butterfly, an import/export company that assists firearm manufacturers and foreign buyers to wade through the regulatory morass of US import/export regulations.

The guidance provided within this article was correct and current at the time it was written. Policies and regulations change frequently. The preceding article is not intended as legal advice and should not be taken as legal advice. If the reader has specific legal questions, seek competent legal counsel.

Between August 16 and 23, 2016, the People’s Protection Unit (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel; YPG) and Syrian government security forces (National Defense Forces and Syrian Armed Forces) fought for control of the city of Al-Hasakah in northeast Syria. The fighting ended with a ceasefire, mediated by Russia, and resulted in the Kurdish forces taking control of the vast majority of the city. During YPG operations, the prison was liberated. Subsequently, video and several images emerged on social media, showing weapons and ammunition that had been seized by the YPG after clashes with Syrian regime forces.

In the first screen capture, two dozen black pistols can be seen towards the center of the image. These are most likely to be Iranian 38mm Hoshdar 2 series signal pistols. Whilst described as signal pistols by the manufacturer, these are multipurpose pistols, capable of firing 38mm signal cartridges, illumination rounds and smoke cartridges, as well as riot control munitions, such as rubber buckshot, rubber baton and riot control agents (CS, CN, etc.). The design of the Hoshdar 2 series is simple: they are smoothbore, single-shot, break-open weapons with a locking latch over the barrel. The construction is primarily of high-tensile aluminum alloy, giving it lightweight durability and improved muzzle velocity, with an effective range of over 75 meters.

Photo credit: Defense Industrial Organization (DIO)

The pistol is known as the Hoshdar KP, whilst a modified version that adds a buttstock, adjustable foregrip and an extended barrel is known as the Hoshdar TP. The TP configuration increases the weapon’s weight from 0.952 kilograms to 2.796 kilograms and increases its length from 265mm to 828mm. This larger weapon would be more commonly used in riot control operations, being easier to handle and firing less-lethal rounds with greater accuracy. Additionally, it has been mounted on top of vehicles when deployed in a public order role. The long-barrelled weapon to the right of the pistols in the image above is not a Hoshdar TP, however.

The Hoshdar 2 series weapons are Iranian copies of the British Webley & Scott Schermuly Multi-Purpose Gun, commonly used in Northern Ireland in the 1980s. The only 38mm cartridge featured in recent Iranian arms export brochures is the Mk. 2 CS, which is outwardly identical to the British round of the same name. The Hoshdar series is currently in production by the Ammunition Industries Group (AMIG) of the Defense Industrial Organization (DIO), an Iranian state-owned weapons manufacturer. The series is offered for export sale and currently used by the Iranian armed forces. When considering Iran’s geographical proximity, military trade ties and overt support for President Assad during the ongoing conflict in Syria, it is unsurprising to see these items in service with Syrian regime forces. Whilst these types of weapons are generally somewhat uncommon in a conflict zone, the seizure of these items from a prison, alongside numerous batons and other items, aptly explains their presence in the Syrian conflict.

This article is reproduced courtesy of Armament Research Services (ARES). See www.armamentresearch.com for further original content.

Technical Specifications

“Arms for Peace”

22 November, 2016–Karachi, Pakistan: the 10th edition of the International Defence Exhibition And Seminar (IDEAS) was held. SADJ’s last visit to Pakistan was for the 2014 IDEAS event, which was a rousing success. Show management filled the halls the last time, and expectations were high for a repeat performance.

IDEAS is one of Asia’s top military shows. Many shows are regional and focused solely on their country’s military needs. That’s not a bad thing, but it’s something for attendees and exhibitors to be aware of. For small arms showings and international prominence, our top Asian shows to attend are Defence & Security Thailand, DSA Malaysia, IDEAS in Pakistan and IndoDefence in Indonesia. We at SADJ have a number of other shows we consider very important, such as BRIDEX, TADTE and China Defence, but IDEAS stands out with more international prominence. Oddly enough, the United States has not participated very strongly in the IDEAS show; but the 2014 event was different. Some of the bigger U.S. companies are beginning to understand the prominence of IDEAS and are partnering with local distributors and having some presence. Smart smaller defense contractors should sense an opportunity here as well. In the 2012 edition, our small group was about the ownly U.S. attendees to be found. Of course, that U.S.-centric viewpoint is very short-sighted. The international community had a huge presence at IDEAS in 2012

China’s Poly-Technologies presented a first viewing of the “Shoulder Launched Rocket–with Low Collateral Damage.” The display and accompanying brochure call this a rocket, but it appears to be a recoilless launcher with a ballast of hundreds of plastic disks tossed backwards or some hybrid of the two. This allows for firing from enclosure, defined as approximately 2.5 meters cubed or larger. More importantly, the grenade has a low fragmentation/blast distance of 7 meters and is used as a breacher. www.poly.com.cn Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

The POF “Eye” being examined by these Pakistan soldiers, is a round-the-corner handgun firing device for firing from cover. A much simpler version of the very successful and frequently copied Israeli “Cornershot,” and it is made in Pakistan of metal as opposed to plastic. Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

A very interesting 40x53mm AGL was presented by Daudsons of Pakistan (DSA). This is a straight blowback operated system, which strips the round and link on the bolt’s forward travel, fires with link intact (so do most other AGLs, but they pull the round rearward first) and ejects case with link. Very interesting and well developed design, simplified from most others.

A very interesting 40x53mm AGL was presented by Daudsons of Pakistan (DSA). This is a straight blowback operated system, which strips the round and link on the bolt’s forward travel, fires with link intact (so do most other AGLs, but they pull the round rearward first) and ejects case with link. Very interesting and well developed design, simplified from most others.

Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT) presented the Al-Zarrar main battle tank, a modernized version of the Chinese Type 59 MBT. HIT has done over 60 modifications to the tank, which is in service with the Pakistan Army. The main gun is a 125mm Smoothbore, with 7.62mm PKM and on top what was described as a “Dushka” or DSHK M. On closer examination, the 12.7x108mm machine gun is a Pakistan-made variant of the Chinese W85 piston-operated machine gun, with some DSHK M features such as muzzle break. Photo by Jason Wong.

Security guard on the docks near Karachi, with an old AK converted to 12 gauge semi-auto. Photo by Jason Wong.

MKEK from Turkey was featuring the MPT-76 (Milli piyade tüfegi), Turkey’s new National Infantry Rifle. In 7.62x51mm NATO caliber, it is designed as a modular system to cover almost every punishing environment. www.mkek.gov.tr Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

MKEK from Turkey was featuring the MPT-76 (Milli piyade tüfegi), Turkey’s new National Infantry Rifle. In 7.62x51mm NATO caliber, it is designed as a modular system to cover almost every punishing environment. www.mkek.gov.tr Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

PMTF (Pakistan Machine Tool Factory) has a new RPG-7 variant developed several years ago, along with their subcaliber training device. Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

MKEK from Turkey presented their MK19 Mod 3 variant, called the AGL. This is in 40x53mm caliber, and MKEK has made a sale of approximately 900 units to the Pakistan military. Photo by Dan Shea Courtesy Small Arms Defense Journal.

At the time of its introduction, it was planned that the 5.56x45mm G36 standard assault rifle used by the German Armed Forces (Bundeswehr) would be in service for 20 years. The first delivered G36s reached this milestone in 2016. Their replacement is anticipated to start in 2019.

“Konzept Handwaffen der Bundeswehr”

A document published in 2015 states the conceptual framework for new assault rifles (“zukünftiges System Sturmgewehr”) to replace the German Armed Forces’ G36 assault rifle. The document presents a framework for the acquisition of new firearms. It also outlines the specific requirements, in terms of weapons and accessories, for the lowest category of units up to the Special Operations Forces (SOF): SpezKr Kommando Spezialkräfte (KSK) and SpezKr Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine (KSM).

German soldier wearing equipment designated “Infanterist der Zukunft—Erweitertes System” (IdZ-ES). His G36 assault rifle is modified for IdZ-ES with two push-to-talk (PTT) buttons on the handguard for wireless connection, via Bluetooth, to the radio and core computer in his “electronic back.” The PTT buttons allow him to use the radio without letting go of the grip, while aiming at the target. The introduction of a new assault rifle as a replacement is anticipated to start in 2019. Photo: Bundeswehr

A New Assault Rifle for Germany’s SOF

The German SOF have already recently asked for an assault rifle system tailored to their special needs. They must always be able to work across a large part of the operating spectrum. Therefore, their firearms must be capable of functioning under almost all climatic conditions and in all imaginable combat situations. The “leichte Sturmgewehr Spezialkräfte” is the primary tool for the SOF soldier and it must be precise, reliable, light and modular—allowing signature dampening and the use of different sights. This is independent of the “System Sturmgewehr Bundeswehr,” which shall replace the G36 in 2019. At the beginning of January 2017, the Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support issued a tender for a total of 1,750 rifles. The new rifles are expected to replace the G36 rifles currently in use with the SOF. The deadline for submitting offers was February 9, with deliveries to start on September 10 and be completed by June 28, 2019. That means it should be a commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) acquisition.

The Listed Technical Requirements:
1. Chambered in 5.56x45mm NATO
2. Gas-operated, capable of single and automatic fire
3. Feature ambidextrous controls for right- and left-handed users
4. Signature dampening
5. To be equipped with a STANAG 4694 NATO Accessory Rail (NAR) on the top of the receiver, with other NARs located on the handguard
6. Weapon length without a suppressor max. 900mm
7. For use in areas with climatic categories A1-3, B1-3, C0-2 and M1-3 according to STANAG 4370 without restriction of functionality
8. Barrel life of at least 10,000 rounds and receiver life of 30,000 rounds or more
9. Maximum weight of 3.8 kg (without magazine and optics)
10. Accessories include a laser designator and illuminator, flashlight and carrying equipment

Interpretation of the 10 Stated Decision Criteria:
(1) The “Konzept Handwaffen der Bundeswehr” outlines the basic idea of one standard weapon with various applications, with a table (Grundidee “Baukastensystem” Handwaffe) listing the following requirements for the SOF: barrel long/short, and barrel changes for 5.56x45mm and 7.62x35mm caliber ammunition. But now, as stated in the requirements, the barrel change for 7.62x35mm caliber ammunition (.300 BLK) is unnecessary.
(2) Gas-operated and fully automatic means continuous and/or burst. Almost all assault rifles today are gas-operated. The requirements do not specify whether the weapon should employ a short- or long-stroke system or a direct gas impingement system.
(3) Regarding easy operation for both right- and left-handed users, almost all assault rifle manufacturers today present the popular AR-15 architecture with some modifications and ambidextrous controls.
(4) Signature dampening is the effective reduction of a sound, flash and dust signature with a sound suppressor, and is an important requirement for SOF operators. On average, suppressors reduce noise by 20–35 decibels. A suppressor can only eliminate most noise when coupled with subsonic ammunition.
(5) The NATO Standardization Agreement STANAG 4694 outlines the standards for mounting auxiliary equipment; this includes telescopic sights, tactical lights, laser aiming modules, night vision devices, reflex sights, foregrips, bipods and bayonets. STANAG 2324 describes a standard mounting platform consisting of tactical bracket rails with multiple transverse slots for accessories. The MIL-STD-1913 rail is also known as a NATO Picatinny rail. In order to balance the center of gravity of the weapon when it is filled with accessories and ready to fire, it is important that the upper receiver has a full-length and flat top rail, with space for various optics. The handguard should also feature side and bottom Picatinny rail positions with a modular locking accessory mounting system. The rails should be light, but strong enough to mount a grenade launcher or vertical combat grip. These rails allow the operator to add only those accessories required for the mission, thus reducing the weight burden and increasing the weapon’s maneuverability.
(6) The maximum length of 900mm for the weapon without a suppressor indicates that a carbine is required, such as the M4 or the HK416 A5 with a barrel length of 14.5″ (368.3mm).
(7) Operation in climatic categories A1-3, B1-3, C0-2 and M1-3 according to STANAG 4370 means that the weapon must tolerate hot-dry, hot-humid, cold and maritime environments without restrictions in functionality.
(8) The specified receiver and barrel lives of at least 30,000 and 10,000 rounds, respectively, demand a solid weapon. Cold hammer-forged barrels have proved to be the longest-lasting rifle barrels. The most accurate and durable have a high-quality outer finish, such as a MIL-SPEC heavy phosphate coating, and a chrome-lined or stainless steel barrel.
(9) The maximum weight of 3.8 kg (without the magazine and optics) is a realistic demand. The venerable Colt’s M16 Carbine with an adjustable buttstock has an empty weight of only 2,676 grams (5.9 pounds), and weighs 3,130 grams (6.9 pounds) when loaded with 30 rounds. The Colt C8A2 with a 14.5″ barrel has an unloaded weight of 2,810 grams (7.53 pounds). By comparison, the G36K’s empty weight is 3,370 grams, which is increased by approximately 620 grams by the addition of a 30-round magazine.
(10) Today’s accessories include reflex sights, laser light modules and even clip-on night vision device/thermal weapon sights, as well as vertical combat grips. As these accessories increase the weapon’s overall weight, very light receiver groups and rails are advantageous and allow an assault rifle system to be modified according to special requirements.

One can deduce that these 10 decision criteria are not designed with a particular rifle in mind, such as the HK416F, which is the French choice. The AR-15 architecture is not listed as a technical requirement, and other technical solutions may also be appropriate. There are several COTS rifles on the market that fulfill the stated criteria. In summary, the SOF can get a “Sturmgewehr, Spezialkräfte, leicht” tailored to their needs and not necessarily the standard assault rifle for the Bundeswehr.

Photo: Aud Håland

Unrestricted: Need Not Be “Made in Germany”

The 1,750 rifles to be bought include five models for bid comparison (delivered before a contract is signed), 40 for qualification tests and compatibility checks with optical sights and 1,705 serially produced weapons. Companies worldwide can take part and offer their weapon model, as long as they are ISO 9000 certified and have sales of more than US$1 million. The estimated value of the contract is €11 million (US$11.6 million).

As usual, the bidders are not made publicly known. Rheinmetall and Steyr Mannlicher’s RS556 and Heckler & Koch’s HK433 are obvious bidders. Other candidates that fulfill the technical requirements and will probably take part in the competition include the following:

– The HK416 A5 in 5.56x45mm caliber. The HK416 is the standard assault rifle for the Norwegian Armed Forces, combat proven and has been chosen as the new standard assault rifle for the French Armed Forces (HK416F);
– The FN Herstal SCAR-L in 5.56x45mm caliber;
– The SIG MCX SBR, available in 5.56x45mm and .300 BLK caliber, which is built for optimum performance with the .300 BLK cartridge and can accommodate a sound suppressor for both supersonic and subsonic loads. The user can easily switch between .300 BLK and 5.56mm with changeable barrels. The Netherlands Maritime Special Operations Force (NL-MARSOF), the Netherlands Marine Corps’ elite unit, was the first military unit to be publicly revealed as having purchased the .300 BLK-chambered rifle;
– The Tavor X95 bullpup, available in 5.56x45mm and 7.62x35mm (.300 BLK). With a 5.56mm caliber 16.5″ barrel, the X95 has a total length of only 670mm, making it a short CQB assault rifle with a long barrel; and
– The M6-G 5.56x45mm rifle from LWRC International, LLC, which was chosen by the Swedish SOF.
– Colt Canada is another company confirming that they have applied to participate in the German SOF tender.

German Accessories- Soldier with IdZ-ES equipment. The G36K A3 is modified for IdZ-ES and can be tailored with accessories for special requirements. The Picatinny rail on top has integrated folding mechanical sights. Accessories mounted on the rails, shown here, include an optical ZO 4x30 sight with a light reflex RSA-S sight on top, with an NSV 600 clip-on night sight. Meanwhile, the laser light module Vario-Ray and PTT-buttons are mounted at 3 o’clock, and a vertical combat grip is mounted at 6 o’clock. Photo: Bundeswehr

Rheinmetall and Steyr Mannlicher

Rheinmetall has teamed with Steyr Mannlicher and offers the RS556 as a candidate for the German “System Sturmgewehr Bundeswehr.” The new RS556 assault rifle features an adjustable short-stroke gas piston system and rotating bolt, based on the tried-and-tested Steyr Mannlicher Universal Army Rifle (AUG). Several standard barrel lengths are available (14.5″, 16″, 18″ and 20″), and the hammer-forged barrel can be easily and rapidly exchanged without tools.

With a 406mm (16″) barrel and a loaded 30-round magazine, the RS556 weighs around 4,200 grams. In the future, it will be possible to change the barrel to, for example, a .300 Whisper or .300 BLK caliber version. A special breech system with an emergency operation feature ensures that the weapon always functions reliably, even under extreme operating conditions, such as severely hot and cold environments. The RS556 has an AR-15-style architecture and is highly ergonomic and easy to handle, and can be readily adapted to individual equipment profiles. The stock can be adjusted to seven different lengths. With a fully extended stock and a 16″ barrel, the weapon is 960mm (37.8″) in length. The RS556 has fixed accessory rails and optional NARs according to MIL-STD-1913, STANAG 2324 and STANAG 4694 to fit various optics, night sight devices, and laser light modules. A 40mm grenade launcher can also be mounted. The RS556 is compatible with the Bundeswehr’s modular “Future Soldier–Expanded System” (IdZ-ES).

The RS556’s light-weight stock can be adjusted to seven different lengths, allowing its optimal adaptation to various equipment profiles. Photo: Rheinmetall/Steyr Mannlicher

Heckler & Koch

The German firearms manufacturer Heckler & Koch has unveiled a new modular rifle, the HK433, chambered in 5.56x45mm, as a replacement for the G36 rifle. This is the fourth rifle family to be offered by Heckler & Koch, following the G36, HK416 and HK417 rifles.

The HK433 is a development based on the combat-proven G36 and HK416 assault rifles. Whilst the 5.56mm HK433 assault rifle is the backbone of a new weapon family, firearms may also be offered in other calibers, such as 7.62x51mm (HK231), 7.62x39mm (HK123) and .300 BLK. The HK433 is a gas-operated weapon with a short-stroke gas piston system, using a locked rotating bolt head. The gas regulator is a further development, and it can be regulated for use with a sound suppressor without any tools. The HK433’s operating mechanism is based on that of the G36, but it is equipped with a safety catch as well as self-lubricating sliding elements. The integrated G36 closure guide of the upper receiver ensures high functional reliability. The monolithic upper receiver is made of strong aluminum and features a long STANAG 4694 NAR. The Slim Line handguard has a Picatinny rail at the six o’clock position and HKey rails at the three and nine o’clock positions (optional MIL-STD-1913). In addition, according to Heckler & Koch, the lower receiver group has a maintenance-free and tamper-proof shot counter, from which weapon data can be transmitted wirelessly. There is also a GLM/GLM A1 and HK269 grenade launcher attachment interface. The charging handle is flat and fully ambidextrous, with integrated forward assist function. The rifle can be cocked in any position. Its safety switch has three positions: safe, single fire, and full auto (700 rounds per minute). Heckler & Koch is offering two variants of the HK433: one with a G36-type magazine release lever and one with an HK416/AR-15 magazine release push-button. In both cases, the bolt hold open/release lever is integrated with the front part of the trigger guard. The HK433 is offered with 11″, 12.5″, 14.5″, 16.5″, 18.9″ and 20″ cold-hammered, 178 mm right-hand twist, six-groove barrels with hard chromium plating, equipped with an adjustable gas port for a sound suppressor. The barrels can be interchanged by the user, and they are equipped with an M15x1 muzzle thread for a blank firing attachment (BFA). The HK433 weighs around 3,500 grams when fitted with a 16.5″ barrel. According to the manufacturer’s quality specifications, the rifle is functional over the temperature range defined by NATO: from extremely hot to extremely cold temperatures. The buttstock can be adjusted to five different lengths and can therefore be dynamically adapted to the protective equipment of the shooter. A special feature is the buttstock’s height-adjustable cheek rest, the ergonomics of which have been changed compared to the Slim Line buttstock of the HK416 and the IdZ buttstock of the G36. Furthermore, it is possible to fold the buttstock to the right in each set position, without interfering with access to the trigger or obscuring the eject opening. A defensive capability is therefore ensured in emergencies, such as a surprise attack, even when the rifle is in its “transport state.” Various camouflage colors and infrared-absorbing coatings are also available, according to the customer’s requirements.

5.56x45mm

The U.S. Army is sticking to the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round (EPR). This round offers better performance than the M855 against all targets likely to be engaged with small arms. This is quite a feat, considering the long-standing solid performance of the M855.

Most armies have invested heavily in 5.56x45mm NATO and there is apparently little interest in large-scale acquisitions of multi-caliber platforms, mostly due to cost. Odd calibers, like the 7.62x35mm (.300 BLK) caliber projectiles, deliver greater muzzle energy and better penetration than comparable 5.56mm ammunition. The .300 BLK has therefore become popular among hunters.

There is now a trend of firearms manufacturers also offering assault rifle platforms in .300 BLK caliber for military and law enforcement. The .300 BLK might seem designed as an answer to the 7.62x39mm, but uses the same casing as legacy 5.56x45mm cartridges and can feed from AR-15/M16 STANAG magazines, and so offers users the option of a 7.62mm hard-hitting slugger. The international SOF community will continue to use 5.56mm NATO standard rounds and 7.62×51 NATO. The requirement for multiple calibers actually stems from small SOF operators. The .300 BLK is suitable for CQB and boarding operators, especially when conducted in the confined deck spaces of the maritime environment. Additionally, the noise from a subsonic .300 Whisper cartridge is mitigated relatively easily by a sound suppressor, making this ammunition especially useful for SOF operators.

Advances in the lethality of small arms continue to be dominated by the development of optimized ammunition, which provides varying degrees of “stopping power.” Alternative calibers continue to be considered, including 6.5x38mm Grendel and 6.8mm options.

Examples of STANAG 4694 NATO Accessory Rails

Examples of STANAG 4694 NATO Accessory Rails

Examples of STANAG 4694 NATO Accessory Rails

The RS556 features several standard and optional NATO accessory rails (MIL-STD-1913, STANAG 2324 and STANAG 4694) for various optics and night observation devices or laser light modules. A 40mm grenade launcher can also be mounted. The ready-to-fire RS556, with a 16

The HK433 has a monolithic upper receiver with a STANAG 4694 rail at the 12 o’clock position. It features a modular Slim Line handguard with HKey interfaces at 3 and 9 o’clock, a Picatinny rail (MIL-STD 1913) at 6 o’clock, and a maintenance-free round counter integrated into the lower receiver—no energy supply required. The HK433 also boasts a foldable and retractable buttstock with a height-adjustable cheek rest. The rifle can be used even with the buttstock in the folded-in position. Photo: Heckler & Koch

SIG SAUER SIG MCX 5.56x45mm SBR, here with an 11.5

SOF operators from Norwegian Naval Special Operations Command. Photo: Torbjørn Kjorsvold/Forsvaret

Tavor X95 CQB bullpup design, 5.56 NATO with a 16.5

Members of USSOCOM training with FN SCAR assault rifles (14.5

Special Operations Forces around the world use different assault rifle models. Colt Canada/Diemaco’s different versions are used by Denmark, Norway and 22nd Special Air Service Regiment (L119A1 and L119A2). Left to right: A Norwegian SOF soldier with a Colt Canada C8 and his war dog, Commander Norwegian SOF and a Latvian SOF operator with a G36. Photo: Håvard Grimsbo Hansen/Forsvaret

The 6.5 Grendel’s case head diameter is the same as that of the Russian 7.62×39mm and larger than that of the .300 BLK and 5.56×45mm NATO. It fits, with fewer rounds, in a standard-size M16/AR-15 magazine; however, the bolt and barrel must be changed. Photo: Aud Håland

Fallschirmjäger (paratrooper) with a G36K. Compare the technical requirements for the new rifle with data for the German SOF’s G36K A4: 5.56x45mm, gas-operated, short-stroke piston system, 30 rounds, rate of fire 750 rounds per minute, barrel length 318 mm, maximum length 883 mm and empty weight 3,370 grams. Photo courtesy of Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Architekt Ralph Zwilling

As many of our readers know, the K2 rifle and K1A “SMG” are the standard infantry personal weapons of the ROK armed forces. K1A is actually a 5.56x45mm carbine, but ROK Army nomenclature has always been that the K1A is an SMG. While these have been in service since around the early 1980s, there’s one surprising fact; they haven’t really been upgraded since adoption.

While there had been some very minor upgrades in the heat treatment method, or minor design changes of some parts, there have been no major upgrades, as have happened in the M16A1 to M16A2 or M16A2 to M16A4. In small arms, it is a very rare case of doing nothing, since almost all countries and manufacturers who can design and manufacture military small arms have gone through significant changes for their weapons designs during those years, especially after the 1990s when the US Army standardized the MIL-STD-1913 interface, the “Picatinny Rail.”

Even though their allies went with all those changes in small arms during last the 3 decades, both the Korean military and the manufacturer, Daewoo Precision as well as its successors, S&T Daewoo and S&T Motiv were surprisingly inactive during almost 30 years in terms of upgrading their rifles and carbines. Actually, all of these are the same company; they only changed names due to the change of management.

The author fires the new K2C.

Of course there are reasons. First, the ROK Army, the biggest military buyer in ROK (of the 600,000 members of the Korean armed forces, the ROK Army has 500,000), was not interested in upgrading their small arms. As you can see by the numbers, the ROK Army today is still a Cold War style force like the US Army before the 1990s. They have spent huge amounts of money on artillery and armor, so the infantry’s share of the budget is not large. Since they are too much focused on war with North Korea, who are basically a 1960s remnant, modern infantry tactics and weapons have not seemed urgent. Thus, they just kept buying existing rifles and carbines, without seeking upgrades.

In those circumstances, manufacturer didn’t see the need for upgrades; ROK military had bought about 2 million rifles and carbines(including a license-built M16A1) since the mid-1970s, and that means Daewoo Precision and it’s successors had supplied on average 40,000–50,000 rifles/carbines per year, during all of that 40 years period. If you can sell those numbers for a few dozen years, and the buyer says nothing about upgrades, and you don’t need to worry about competition, what motivation is there to change?

Another reason for this inactivity in upgrades was the manufacturer’s situation. Daewoo Precision was originally a subdivision of Daewoo group, but during the late 1990s the Daewoo group crumbled and Daewoo Precision was sold to S&T Group, and changed its name to S&T Daewoo, then changed again into S&T Motiv. During these changes and management chaos, stable R&D was not an easy option.

Comparison between K2 and K2C.

First Attempt: Adding a Rail to Existing Weapons

But that doesn’t mean upgrading attempts were non-existent. Most of them were from Special Forces and the private sector. Special Forces of course felt the need to upgrade the K-series weapons, since they couldn’t put any new optics or accessories from foreign sources on their Korean-made weapons. Some very elite groups could buy rail-equipped foreign weapons like M4A1 Carbines or G36s, but the majority of those Special Forces have to use Korean weapons. They tried to find a solution for the problem, and a few companies in Korea developed add-on rail systems for the K1A and K2.

Such rails have been offered since the early to mid-2000s, and small numbers were used within special operation groups. But the numbers were quite small, and it wasn’t until 2013 when the ROK Army finally adopted standardized MIL-STD-1913 rail systems for both K1A and K2. Actually, the first rail systems for K series weapons were developed for the K1A. K1A has no interface for optics or other accessories, and since it’s a standard personal weapon of many Special Forces, a solution to attach optics on K1A had some urgency for those special units. Until 2013 many non-standard rails from various companies were supplied in small numbers to Special Forces, but in 2013, the ROK armed forces selected standard rails, because of the introduction of new Dot sight.

ROK Army infantry aiming K1A SMG with PVS-11K and rail. Upper/lower rails are covered with hand guard. Usually, K1A is issued to vehicle crews, radio operators, commanders or other personnel who need a compact personal weapon, including most special operations operators.

Korean Armed Forces Finally Decided to Adopt a Standard Red Dot Sight

The PVS-11K (despite the PVS nomenclature, it’s not a night vision system- it’s an ordinary red dot, with night vision compatibility only), was adopted around 2012-2013. But for that purpose, they needed to find an interface for attaching the sight on the weapons. They decided to buy a rail system developed by DI Optical, the Korean company who also developed the PVS-11K.

Actually, it was DI optical who was the most active rail developer in Korea. Since they tried hard to sell their optics (mainly dot sights) to military, they also had to develop rails, especially for the K1A. Now when they could sell the optics, they could sell rails with them.

The standard rail systems for Korean armed forces are two; K1A’s and K2’s. K1A’s is a four-side rail hand guard system (side and under rails are usually not used, but can be attached easily if necessary), which is attached to the weapon’s barrel nut and hand guard attachment bolt. But the K2’s is only a short rail on the upper receiver, since the K2 originally has an optics mount on its receiver to attach it. Also, unlike the K2, the K1A is used by Special Forces, so they probably felt the need for a more elaborate rail on their K1A carbines.

Both rail systems are now in use by both regular and special units around the ROK military.

ROK Army infantry aiming K2 rifle with rail, PVS-11K and magnifier.

Second Attempt—The K2C

While new rails for existing weapons were developed and supplied, there has been another attempt to upgrade the weapon itself, at least for the export market.

In 2012, S&T Motiv introduced the new K2C, or K2-Carbine. It was a necessity born from demand. As you can see, the basic K2 rifle and K1A Carbines became more and more obsolete after 2000- not only without provision for modern MIL-STD-1913 compatible accessories, but also with somewhat obsolete concepts, both weapons had flaws on their designs. The K1A is not only a bit large for the modern 5.56mm “PDW” concept, but it also can’t provide a stable platform for modern special operation carbines, with its short barrel length and very uncomfortable stock design. K2 is also somewhat inadequate for becoming a modern tactical carbine, not only because of the lack of a rail attachment, but also with its length, which is basically only slightly shorter (less than an inch) than an M16A1.

To handle these problems, S&T Motiv designed the K2C, which is basically a shortened version of the K2 rifle with a flattop upper receiver and 4-way rail hand guard. They not only chopped the barrel to 13.5 inch, they also shortened the gas piston, and adjusted the front sight height to the new barrel. The rear sight is their newly designed detachable backup sight, but a version which retains the original K2 rear sight is also manufactured according to one African customer’s order.

The original K2 stock can be selected, but until today, virtually all customers opted to use an M4 style retractable stock; while the stock itself is folded to the right side just like on the K2, this can also be length-adjusted to each operator, an especially useful feature when they are wearing body armor.

Basic operation and functions are unchanged; like the K2, this is using an AK-style gas piston, only shortened to the new barrel configuration. Since it’s a short barrel and long stroke gas piston operation, it’s a bit less controllable than other comparable weapons like the HK416, M4A1 or SCAR, but it’s quite reliable- also, since charging handle is attached to the bolt carrier directly, it’s relatively easy to clear malfunctions like an AK or SG550 series rifle.

Weight is 3.3kg with empty magazine, and length is 875mm when its stock is fully extended, and 570mm with stock folded; it can use most STANAG magazines. Rifling twist is 7.3inch/1, and K2C can use both SS109(NATO) and M193 ammunition.

While still not adopted by ROK forces—Special Forces are considering it now, but are still undecided due to the budget—some K2Cs were exported to foreign customers, including Iraq government forces; it’s even used by their elite division, but some of them were also captured by ISIS and unfortunately used against their original owners.

The Third (but Not Last) Attempt: K2C1

K2C was a step forward from the old K-series rifle/carbine configuration, but the problem for its adoption by ROK armed forces is the highly rigid—probably one of the worst in democratic countries’ military—bureaucracy and less than up-to-date state of mind. Even Special Forces are not free from such drawbacks.

ROK Army’s upper echelon didn’t like the idea of a short-barreled carbine like an M4 or K2C; most of them still have a 1980s small arms concept in their minds, when the M16A2 was still deemed an adequate infantry rifle and carbine length weapons (such as today’s M4 carbine) were not for general infantry but limited for vehicle crews or special operation forces. Also, since K2C is in fact one new type of weapon, which is in the middle of a K1A “SMG” and the K2 rifle, they deemed it would take considerable time and bureaucratic effort to adopt K2C as a “new” type of weapon. One more thing; the Army high-level commanders didn’t like the K2C’s lack of a bayonet lug.

So the K2C1 appeared; it’s basically a K2 rifle, retains most of the basic features, but with a new rail hand guard, flat top upper receiver and new M4-style adjustable length stock. To some degree, K2C’s features were used to upgrade the K2 rifle. It is now distributed to front line troops to replace the old K2 rifles they have had for many years. It’s still used only in small numbers, and in 2016 there was a complaint from some users that the hand guard became easily overheated; but the main reason for this was lack of a method to cover or hold the hand guard properly, such as using a rail-attached cover or the vertical foregrip. The manufacturer actually recommended using these methods when it was first supplied to the Army, but they refused since “Such things (especially a vertical fore grip) don’t comply with our current bayonet fighting training manual!”

One thing to be curious about is the handguard. The Korean Army is usually very sensitive on weapons and equipment weight, so the K2C1 doesn’t have side and under rails on the hand guard- they can be attached easily when needed, but instead of more modern, more lightweight, more space-saving and virtually open-licensed Keymod or MLOK design, S&T used somewhat old fashioned screw attachments. Why didn’t they choose more modern attachments? One can only wonder.

The author didn’t have any chance to fire the K2C1, but since it’s only a K2 rifle with some external changes, it shouldn’t be that different from the original. However, since the weight is a bit heavier than the original (3.684kg vs. 3.37kg), it should be slightly more controllable than the original.

Africa at times is a continent stewing in discontent and danger, rapid government changes, with outsider influences inflaming ancient tribal feuds, as well as manipulation of natural resources for the benefit of others. The rich natural resources call to the nations of the industrialized West, and now the East, as a place to do business. This is not always at the benefit of the African country targeted for such “Business.”

There are some very radiant stars in the countries of Africa; places that have seen almost a Renaissance of education, production, the Arts and the betterment of their people. Botswana comes to mind as in the early stages of this, as do others like Gabon. One shining spot in the Southern continent is, and has been, South Africa.

Denel Land Systems manufactured Y3 AGL marketed as GL1-40 Grenade Machine Gun in 40x53mm. This indigenous competitor to the MK19 is in service with South African Defence Forces as well as several others including Kurdistan.

On almost every level, this country is moving forward. Certainly there are internal problems, age-old resentments, questions about government over-stepping its boundaries (who doesn’t have that issue?) and dangerous areas one is ill-advised to go to. Unemployment is higher than one would like, but these basically normal hazards of today’s world aside, the industrial base is moving forward quite rapidly.

A jewel in the international defense industry is the trade show African Aerospace & Defence, held every two years. Many countries come to show their wares for Land, Sea and Air warfare, but the indigenous manufacturers shine as well. There are many local arms builders such as Truvelo Armoury, Milkor and Ripple Effect and some concentrated into the private company Denel SOC (actually, all shares are owned by the South African government). Divided into a variety of divisions, Denel PMP for ammunition, Denel ISM, Denel Vehicle Systems, Denel Dynamics, Denel Mechem, Denel Aerostructures, Denel OTR, Denel Aviation, Denel Technical Academy and others, the main one that concerns SADJ is Denel Land Systems. That is where the small arms are, and there is an amazing offering of them. Land Systems is in charge of infantry systems, artillery gun systems and combat turrets, as well as small arms. www.denel.co.za

The fact is that AAD is one of the best shows on the planet; it certainly has the displays and following among attendees, and it’s just about the only show in town—African defense shows are few and far between and concentrated more up to the Middle East. To say that most of Africa shows up would be an understatement. 33,862 attendees were there for the first three days of the Trade part of the show, and on the weekend, the two days of the Air Show logged 56,924 attendees from 105 countries (it was open to non-trade, families, etc., so if you’re exhibiting, be prepared to enjoy the air show, but exhibit to a different crowd on those two days).

Don Rickard from Less Lethal Africa Ltd, a local company that has been exhibiting at many shows around the world lately, had a full display of his products. In the display, you can see the rubber bullets for 7.62x39, 5.56x45, .50 BMG and 40x46mm, as well as the (Green) gel 12ga for door breaching. www.lesslethalafrica.com

There were 532 Exhibitors set up to display, from 34 countries including 13 National pavilions. 86 aircraft were on display on the airfield.

Perhaps more importantly, there were over 75 official delegations, including Ministers of Defense, Chiefs of Military and others, from the following countries:

Angola, Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Cameroon, Congo Brazzaville, Czech Republic, DRC, Egypt, Germany, Ghana, India, Iran, Japan, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, PRC, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Tanzania, Thailand, Turkey, UAE, Uganda, USA, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia, Zimbabwe

SADJ has had a presence at AAD for many years, and we consider it to be a “must-do” show. Many manufacturers from around the world agree, and at the very least are exhibiting there to attempt to get involved with the larger Denel program as partners, in addition to showing to the African attendees. Generally, the show is divided into about six or seven large aircraft hangers, with displays in between. The Chinese take up a large part of some pavilions, as do the Russians. It really is a diverse experience at the show where you can see many offerings not usually evident at the European or US shows.

Trijicon had a full display at AAD 2016, as they usually do. New Machine Gun Optics were on display as well as the standard catalog as shown. www.trijicon.com

Milkor’s SuperSix MRGL for the 40x51mm Medium Range grenades was a very popular addition to Milkor’s line at the show. As a local company, Milkor has a great success story, with their 6-shot launchers dominating the field of copies that have appeared internationally. www.milkor.com

Truvelo Armoury unveiled their CMS 20x42mm sniper rifle at the AAD 2016 show. This rifle can accurately engage up to 1000 meters, 2 MOA at 600 meters. It weighs 11kg, with a 380mm barrel and overall length of 980mm unfolded, 700mm with stock folded. Capable of firing HEI, API SAPHEI projectiles, the CMS 20x42 has opened a new field of options for anti-materiel snipers. www.truvelo.co.za

The iNkunzi Strike in 20x42mm is now mounted on the SDROW remote weapons station by Denel.

Denel’s Y3 AGL 40x53mm launcher mounted on a deck mount.

Tony Neophytou’s design, the NeoPup 20x42mm semi-automatic rifle uses a unique side-mounted pistol grip and firing mechanism. This is now the iNkunzi Personal Area Weapon (PAW) with Denel Land Systems.

Tony Neophytou’s design, the NeoPup 20x42mm semi-automatic rifle uses a unique side-mounted pistol grip and firing mechanism. This is now the iNkunzi Personal Area Weapon (PAW) with Denel Land Systems.

Pakistan Ordnance Factory’s LSR (Light Sniper Rifle) was a move away from POF’s HK/G3-based semi-automatic snipers of the recent past. This offering is bolt action, can be offered in 7.62x51mm or .338 Lapua Magnum and appears well made. www.pof.gov.pk

Pakistan Ordnance Factory’s LSR (Light Sniper Rifle) was a move away from POF’s HK/G3-based semi-automatic snipers of the recent past. This offering is bolt action, can be offered in 7.62x51mm or .338 Lapua Magnum and appears well made. www.pof.gov.pk

Denel Land System’s 60mm M6 Long Range Mortar is lightweight and extends the range of the basic 60mm to about 6km.

At the Ditsong Military Museum in Johannesburg, there were many cannon and weapons on display. Here was a British Rexer Light Machine Gun as used by the Machine Gun Brigade in 1914-1915. There were 27 bought for the Colony of Natal and issued to the Rifle Regiments; excess was issued to the MGB. Eventually used by commandos on recon, these .303 caliber Madsen LMG variants are quite rare.

Denel’s twin mounted DMG-5 machine guns in 7.62x51mm. Right: Denel’s 20x139mm GL-2 on a user mount for shipboard.

A Nigerian Army operation targeting armed bandits suspected of cattle rustling killed 18 individuals near Dansadau in Nigeria’s northwestern state of Zamfara, on May 4, 2016. Amongst the weapons recovered were 11 AK-type self-loading rifles, 1 G3-type self-loading rifle and a craft-produced break-action, single-shot pistol. One of the AK-type rifles appears to be an AK-103, a relatively modern rifle produced by IZHMASH (now Kalashnikov Concern) in Russia.

The AK-103 is a comparatively modern variant of the AK family, based primarily on the Avtomat Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniy (AKM), an updated AK series rifle introduced in 1959. It shares features with other rifles in the so-called “AK-100 series,” including black synthetic furniture and magazines, a black phosphate finish on metal parts, a distinctive AK-74 type muzzle brake, a side-folding solid polymer stock and an optical sight rail on the left-hand side of the receiver.

Whilst the rifle pictured could, in fact, be an AK-101 (chambered for 5.56×45mm) or an AK-74M (chambered for 5.45×39mm), the presence of primarily 7.62×39mm magazines amongst those AK magazines pictured, and the apparent absence of 5.56×45 or 5.45×39mm ammunition from the loose cartridges pictured, as well as the nature of the other weapons present, suggest that the weapon is most likely an AK-103. The image appears to be lightly distorted; however, the steel magazine second from the left in the top row appears to be a Chinese style 5.56×45mm magazine. This may further support the possibility that the weapon is an AK-101 (adopted in limited numbers elsewhere in Africa); however, an AK-103 remains the most likely identification.

Whilst the exact source of this weapon cannot be ascertained from this image alone, the most likely proximate source is Libya. In late 2003 or early 2004, the Gaddafi government in Libya began negotiations with Russia for the purchase of a range of arms and munitions, including a sizable but ultimately unknown quantity of AK-103-2 self-loading rifles. ARES has previously conducted an extensive assessment of shipping documents, packaging and AK-103 rifles documented in Libya and elsewhere within the MENA region. AK-103 rifles have further proliferated from Libya and have been identified in Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Mali, Niger and Tunisia. None of these states–or Nigeria–is known to have imported AK-103 rifles.

Special thanks to Alex Wambugu.

This article is reproduced courtesy of Armament Research Services (ARES). See www.armamentresearch.com for further original content.

So–what is thermal imaging? Let’s start at the beginning. Sir Frederick William Herschel discovered infrared radiation in 1800. Herschel studied visible sunlight by using a prism to display the spectrum in its rainbow of colors. By placing a thermometer on the different colors, he discovered that the colors all possess different temperatures. To his amazement, and quite by chance, he discovered that a thermometer placed past the red end of the visible color spectrum reported a notable rise in temperature. Herschel correctly deduced that the light spectrum wavelengths went well beyond what could be seen by the human eye. It is this invisible radiation within the infrared (IR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum, past the visible red in the color spectrum, that is captured by thermal imaging devices and made visible to the human eye.

Literally everything with physical mass known to science, whether alive or inert, emits infrared radiation to one degree or another. This is called “emissivity” (emitting), and unless you can achieve absolute zero (-273 °C), emissivity cannot be eliminated. Emissivity is a term that is often misunderstood and misused. It represents a material’s ability to emit thermal radiation and is an optical property of all matter.

Since everything around us emits IR radiation (heat) to varying degrees, thermal imaging devices “see” that radiation and provide the user an image based upon the contrasting differences in emissivity of the objects being observed. While Herschel discovered infrared radiation, it wasn’t until the 1960s that anyone learned how to exploit it for the purpose of target detection and sighting.

The obvious question at this point is “Why did it take so long?” The answer is easy. First, thermal imaging devices are very sophisticated photoelectric devices that use lenses made from rare and unique materials like germanium and zinc selenide. Before 1960, we didn’t possess the exotic materials and manufacturing processes necessary to perfect them. Furthermore, the transistor and the light-emitting diode came of age in the 60s, which led to the optoelectronic circuitry that allowed us to manipulate IR wavelength information and create a picture from it.

Secondly, the demand for thermal imaging cameras and sighting scopes doesn’t even come close to that for digital photography devices, as evidenced by the billions of smartphones and computers that today contain digital cameras. Demand drives development–not the reverse–so thermal imaging has been largely left to advance along its own path based upon its unique demand, and that has largely been for military applications.

Thermal imaging uses a special optical lens that focuses the infrared light emitted by all the objects within the field of view. Compared to the selection of optics on offer for the visible world, infrared optics are very limited. Glass is opaque to thermal radiation, so thermal imaging optics are made of exotics such as germanium, zinc selenide or sapphire. This makes optics expensive and limited in selection. IR optics are not readily interchangeable, even between similar models of thermal imaging devices. Their optics are all special, and that means costly.

As previously mentioned, infrared is part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths that are longer than visible light. Infrared is typically divided into near, mid, long and extreme and is measured in units known as microns or nanometers. Thermal technology detects infrared energy in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) spectrum at 3–5 microns or long-wave infrared (LWIR) at 8–12 microns.

That all seems simple enough, but how does it work?

Day or night in any environment, every person, object and structure emits infrared (heat) waves. The IR device’s lens serves to focus infrared energy that is, in turn, collected and scanned by a phased array of infrared-detector elements. The detector elements create a very detailed temperature pattern called a thermogram. It only takes about one-thirtieth of a second for the detector array to attain all the necessary temperature data to construct the thermogram. This information is obtained from several thousand points within the field of view of the detector array, and it all happens extraordinarily fast.

The thermogram created by the detector elements is instantaneously translated into electric impulses expressed in hertz (Hz). The impulses are sent to a signal-processing unit, a circuit board with a dedicated and highly sophisticated microchip that translates the thermogram impulse information into data for the visual display. The signal-processing unit sends the information to the display, where it appears as various colors depending on the intensity of the infrared emission. More simply, the combination of all the impulses from all of the detector elements creates the image.

Most thermal imaging devices scan at a rate of 30 times per second. They can sense temperatures ranging from -4 °F (-20 °C) to 3,600 °F (2,000 °C) and can normally detect changes in temperature of about 0.4 °F (0.2 °C). There are some that are far more sensitive, but they are also far more expensive. Nonetheless, there are two types of thermal imaging systems: cooled and uncooled. Almost all man-portable thermal systems used for gun sights and observation are uncooled systems.

The cooled systems are cryogenically cooled, with most using either open-system or closed-system Dewar flasks containing liquid nitrogen (LN2). Dewars are specially constructed thermos bottle-like insulated cryogenic liquid containers. The open-system Dewars require hourly/daily monitoring and the replenishment of LN2 that “boils off.” The closed systems have sealed Dewars, therefore cryogenic replenishment is unnecessary. These systems have the IR elements sealed inside a container that cools them to below 0 °C. As you might imagine, cryogenically cooled systems are expensive to manufacture and maintain and are more susceptible to damage from rugged use. These systems are usually platform-mounted on; for example, aircraft, land vehicles, ships, permanent observation posts and medical facilities.

The advantages of a cooled system are the incredible resolution and sensitivity that result from cooling the sensing elements. Even the low-end cryogenically cooled systems can “see” a temperature difference as small as 0.2 °F (0.1 ° C) from more than 1,000 ft (300 m) away. This translates to enough detail to determine if a person is holding a handgun or a wallet at that distance. The high-end units provide even more clarity.

Uncooled systems are the most common type of thermal imaging device. The infrared-detector elements are contained in a unit that operates at room temperature. This type of system is completely quiet. It activates immediately (no system spool-up time), and it’s battery-powered. Comparatively, the uncooled system’s resolution is far less than the cooled system’s, but it is sufficient for man-portable military applications like weapon sighting scopes and small UAV drones for the detection of people or objects in absolute darkness and a number of commercial applications that range from industrial to medical.

In summary, the two types of thermal imaging technology each offer their own advantages, and both are built with exotic materials, making them expensive. Some recently developed uncooled systems are built with a vanadium oxide (VOx) detector that allows for a very small camera size, low weight, minimal power requirements and high resolution. Cooled systems often employ mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) technology that utilizes a highly efficient cryogenic cooler, enabling the detector to discriminate smaller differences in infrared emissions.

About now, you’re probably asking, “What is the difference between thermal imaging and night vision image-enhancement technology?” The answer is that they are different technologies, and they’re commonly confused because both are mostly used to see in the dark. When most people talk about night vision devices (NVDs) they’re actually talking about image-enhancement technology. NVD systems still require visible light, albeit very faint (such as starlight), which is collected and intensified, while their thermal imaging system cousins work in the total absence of visible light. The key difference is that NVDs rely on a special tube, called an image-intensifier tube, to collect and amplify near-infrared and visible light. NVDs must use an IR illuminator to be able to see in complete darkness, and that IR illuminator emits near-infrared radiation.

NVDs employ a conventional glass lens, called the objective lens, to capture ambient light (starlight/moonlight) and some near-infrared light. Near-infrared radiation is closest to the red band (but just beyond it, on the invisible side) of the visible light spectrum. The light gathered by the objective lens is focused into the image-intensifier tube that contains a photocathode. The photocathode converts the photons of light energy into electrons. As the electrons pass through the tube, additional electrons are released from atoms provided by a microchannel plate (MCP) in the tube. An MCP is a tiny glass disc that has millions of microscopic holes (microchannels), made using fiber-optic technology. This multiplies the original number of electrons by a factor of thousands.

At the output end of the image-intensifier tube, the electrons hit a screen coated with phosphors. These electrons maintain their position in relation to the channel they passed through, which paints a perfect image that perfectly represents the distribution of the original photons. The energy of the electrons causes the phosphors to reach an excited state and release photons. These phosphors create the green image on the screen that has come to characterize night vision.

The green phosphor image (white phosphor is now available too) is viewed through another lens, called the ocular lens, which allows you to magnify and focus the image. The NVD may be connected to an electronic display, such as a monitor, or the image may be viewed directly through the ocular lens. Now you know how NVDs work, so back to thermal imaging.

Like any other technology, there are teams of very bright people working to improve thermal imaging products with new materials and better optoelectronics. But since there are highly exotic materials and sophisticated manufacturing processes involved and the lens itself is uniquely designed for each individual camera, it may be many years before a decisive breakthrough drives the cost of thermal imaging down to that of today’s smart phones.

That said, there are some discriminators you might want to consider when choosing a particular thermal imaging device. First and foremost, you can’t judge the contents by their cover. The wavelength envelope the device sees is certainly very important, as are its operating speed and its ability to focus. Both athermalized lenses and manual focus lenses are offered by several manufacturers. An athermalized focus (AF) lens is one that will maintain focus over a wide temperature range. The lens is either immune to focus shift over temperature, or there are fixtures in the lens that maintain focus over a wide temperature range.

With a manual focus (MF) lens, you will see slight focus shifts as the field of view (FOV) temperature changes. This will be apparent at temperature changes of approximately 20 °C or more. You can manually adjust the lens to fix this focus shift, where the athermalized lens does this automatically. Athermalized lenses are generally larger lenses that are used for a fixed FOV.
Quality thermal imaging rifle sights often have a high price range (US$3,000–6,000, or more) due to the expense of the imaging technology and the bells and whistles it offers. Features like Bluetooth to your smartphone, GPS, recoil activated record capability, built-in IR illuminator and IR target spotting laser, runtime extender auxiliary battery packs, in-line rail mounting for in-line compatibility with conventional rifle scopes and built-in zoom magnification, all add cost.

In lower-end thermal imaging devices, accurate images can be easily hindered by differing emissivity and reflections from target-adjacent surfaces. Images can also be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects, specifically objects with erratic temperatures. That said, this problem is reduced in active thermal imaging, where an object is illuminated by an IR light. So camera accuracy is another discriminator. Most of the better thermal imaging devices have at least a ±2% accuracy threshold.

Where will thermal imaging likely go in the future? Since a thermal imager is an optoelectronic device, the attainment of fully autonomous artificial intelligence (AI) will play a dominant role in thermal imaging sophistication, especially in industrial, medical and humanoid robotic applications. The laws of physics will forever restrict some of the applications we can and can’t achieve with thermal imaging, but providing AI with thermal imaging sensors to explore its environment will give it super abilities. It will see in all environmental conditions. It will be able to map and navigate its path in total darkness. It will be able to conduct diagnostic analysis on nearly everything based upon unique heat signatures. It will measure precise speed and distance within its environment. For instance, it will see us as a series of nanosecond thermogram frames until it rapidly discriminates us from everything else in the surrounding environment and identifies us individually as humans.

Being able to see the forest for the trees and anything else walking, crawling or flying within it, with near perfect discrimination and the ability to instantaneously identify it through the use of cloud-based computer image identification technology, will mark a new era in thermal imaging capability. These capabilities and more will become reality within this decade.